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Among these, mitochondria play a pivotal role in cellular energy metabolism, performing key biological functions such as ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation and maintaining redox and calcium homeostasis (Yapa et al., 2021)

[DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 118.Wellington K., Adis B.J

doi: 10.3390/jfmk6010020 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] [156].Mikulska P, Malinowska M, Ignacyk M, et al

The time-dependent effect of Hcy on GPX production was supported by a study involving both an in vivo rat model of HHcy (1.8 g/L of DL-Hcy for 4 weeks) and an in vitro model using a cell line of HUVECs (200 M Hcy for 8h)

3.2.5 Harmful metabolite accumulation Metabolomics is increasingly applied to explore novel biomarkers and mechanisms of CKD and cognitive decline